For-Profit ("Corporate") Boards Compared to Nonprofit Boards

People might be surprised to read that there are more similarities between for-profit and nonprofit Boards than there are differences -- after all, both types of organizations are required to have Boards because both types are corporations, thereby having similar fiduciary responsibilities among members. Members of both types of Boards must attend to the many activities involved in Board operations and governance. Both types of organizations must conform to rules and regulations for operations of corporations within their states/provinces and countries, including for employment laws and tax filings (each type of organization files different types of federal tax forms). Thus, many of the topics included throughout this overall Library topic on Boards are relevant to both types of organizations.
Certainly, there are differences. For-profit Board members often are paid, whereas nonprofit Board members usually are not (except to be reimbursed for expenses). For-profit Board members uniquely attend to decisions about dispersing profits to owners (to stockholders), for example, in the form of stock equity and dividends, whereas nonprofit Board members do not seek to maximize and disperse profits to the owners -- the owners of nonprofits are members of the public. Nonprofit Board members often must participate in robust fundraising by soliciting funds from individuals, foundations, corporations and government entities. Nonprofits corporations often enjoy certain tax advantages, including tax-exemption (being able to avoid payment of certain taxes) and charitability (so donors can deduct donations from their taxes). To retain that charitable tax status, Board and staff members of nonprofits must refrain from exceeding certain limits of lobbying and self-dealing.

For-Profit ("Corporate") Boards Compared to Nonprofit Boards

People might be surprised to read that there are more similarities between for-profit and nonprofit Boards than there are differences -- after all, both types of organizations are required to have Boards because both types are corporations, thereby having similar fiduciary responsibilities among members. Members of both types of Boards must attend to the many activities involved in Board operations and governance. Both types of organizations must conform to rules and regulations for operations of corporations within their states/provinces and countries, including for employment laws and tax filings (each type of organization files different types of federal tax forms). Thus, many of the topics included throughout this overall Library topic on Boards are relevant to both types of organizations.
Certainly, there are differences. For-profit Board members often are paid, whereas nonprofit Board members usually are not (except to be reimbursed for expenses). For-profit Board members uniquely attend to decisions about dispersing profits to owners (to stockholders), for example, in the form of stock equity and dividends, whereas nonprofit Board members do not seek to maximize and disperse profits to the owners -- the owners of nonprofits are members of the public. Nonprofit Board members often must participate in robust fundraising by soliciting funds from individuals, foundations, corporations and government entities. Nonprofits corporations often enjoy certain tax advantages, including tax-exemption (being able to avoid payment of certain taxes) and charitability (so donors can deduct donations from their taxes). To retain that charitable tax status, Board and staff members of nonprofits must refrain from exceeding certain limits of lobbying and self-dealing.

Introduction and Basic Overview

What is a Board of Directors? What Does a Board Look Like?
A corporation, whether for-profit or nonprofit, is required to have a governing Board of Directors. To explain, a corporation can operate as a separate legal entity, much like a person in that it can own bank accounts, enter into contracts, etc. However, the laws governing corporations require that a corporation ultimately is accountable to its owners (stockholders in the case of for-profits and the public with nonprofits). That accountability is accomplished by requiring that each corporation has a Board of Directors that represents the stockholders or the public.
Members of a governing Board have certain legally required (fiduciary) duties, including duties of care, loyalty and obedience (some states and countries use different terms -- for example, in Canada, the duties of care and loyalty are often stressed). For-profit Boards often are referred to as "corporate" Boards, which really is a misnomer because both nonprofit and for-profit corporations are required to have Boards -- not just for-profit corporations.
The phrase "Board operations" often refers to the activities conducted between Board members and can include development and enactment of Board bylaws and other Board policies, recruitment of Board members, training and orientation of Board members, organizing Board committees, conducting Board meetings, conducting Board evaluations, etc. The phrase "governance" often refers to the Board's activities to oversee the purpose, plans and policies of the overall organization, such as establishing those overall plans and policies, supervision of the CEO, ensuring sufficient resources for the organization, ensuring compliance to rules and regulations, representing the organization to external stakeholders, etc. The nature of Board operations and governance depends on a variety of factors, including explicit or implicit use of any particular Board model, the desired degree of formality among Board members and the life-stage of the Board and organization.

Marketing: Naming and Branding

To effectively promote your product, you must have a concise, yet meaningful description of the product. This can be much more complicated than merely picking a name. There are consultancies built around helping organizations to name or brand their products and services. You have to be sure that you're not using a name that is already trademarked or servicemarked. You should not have a name that closely resembles an already established name in your area, or customers will confuse your services with those referred to by the other name -- or, the organization with the other name may choose to sue you. You need a name that makes sense locally, but if you grow, the name will still be understood elsewhere. The name you choose for your product will be around for a long time and can have substantial impact on your products are perceived. Therefore, seriously consider some basic forms of market research to glean impressions of different names. For example, convene several focus groups to glean their reactions to various names. Have survey cards that clients can complete to suggest names.

Inbound Marketing Includes Market Research to Find Out:

What specific groups of potential customers/clients (markets) might have which specific needs (nonprofits often already have a very clear community need in mind when starting out with a new program -- however, the emerging practice of nonprofit business development, or earned income development, often starts by researching a broad group of clients to identify new opportunities for programs)
How those needs might be met for each group (or target market), which suggests how a product might be designed to meet the need (nonprofits might think in terms of outcomes, or changes, to accomplish among the groups of clients in order to meet the needs)
How each of the target markets might choose to access the product, etc. (its "packaging")
How much the customers/clients might be willing pay and how (pricing analysis)
Who the competitors are (competitor analysis)
How to design and describe the product such that customers/clients will buy from the organization, rather than from its competitors (its unique value proposition)
How the product should be identified -- its personality -- to be most identifiable (its naming and branding)

Inbound Marketing Includes Market Research to Find Out:

What specific groups of potential customers/clients (markets) might have which specific needs (nonprofits often already have a very clear community need in mind when starting out with a new program -- however, the emerging practice of nonprofit business development, or earned income development, often starts by researching a broad group of clients to identify new opportunities for programs)
How those needs might be met for each group (or target market), which suggests how a product might be designed to meet the need (nonprofits might think in terms of outcomes, or changes, to accomplish among the groups of clients in order to meet the needs)
How each of the target markets might choose to access the product, etc. (its "packaging")
How much the customers/clients might be willing pay and how (pricing analysis)
Who the competitors are (competitor analysis)
How to design and describe the product such that customers/clients will buy from the organization, rather than from its competitors (its unique value proposition)
How the product should be identified -- its personality -- to be most identifiable (its naming and branding)

Includes "Business (Market) Research Methods 101"

The guidebook includes guidelines to conduct highly practical market research activities for your program development, marketing or evaluation. Includes:
Guidelines to plan your market research
Overview of methods to collect data during research
How to conduct highly ethical research
Guidelines to conducting observations
Guidelines to developing questionnaires
Guidelines to conducting interviews
Guidelines to conducting focus groups
Guidelines to developing case studies
Guidelines to conducting pilot research
Some major sources of market research information
Guidelines to analyzing and interpreting research results

Comprehensive, Integrated and Practical Resource About

This book is unique -- typically, you would have to buy three separate books to get information about nonprofit program design, marketing and evaluation. Not now!
FUNDING for nonprofit programs is very difficult to get if the nonprofit has not carefully designed, marketed and evaluated its programs. If those three highly integrated activities are not done well, it is very difficult to prove to funders that the programs are successfully meeting needs in the nonprofit's community. As a result, the nonprofit will not get the support and funding so critical to its very existence. Thus, the critical activities of program design, marketing and evaluation have never been more important to nonprofits! This book is a must for anyone seeking to start a successful nonprofit or program, or to ensure they get funding!
Rather than treating the three activities as somehow being completely separate from each other (which they are not!), this book provides clear and comprehensive guidelines for all of the most important aspects of designing, marketing and evaluating a nonprofit program. Guidelines are written in an easy-to-implement style, resulting in a highly practical resource that can be referenced at any time during the life of a nonprofit program.
This guide can be used to:
Evolve strategic goals into well-designed programs, guaranteed to meet needs of clients.
Develop very credible nonprofit fundraising proposals, evaluation plans and business plans.
Ensure focused and effective marketing, including sales, advertising and promotions.
Evaluate effectiveness and efficiencies of current programs in delivery of services to clients.
Evaluate program performance against goals and outcomes.
Understand how a program really works in order to improve or duplicate the program.
This hands-on guide is ideal for:
Executives and managers of nonprofits
Members of nonprofit Boards of Directors
Nonprofit consultants and service providers
Foundations, government and corporate donors
Educators

Contact Information

Free Management Libraryc/o Authenticity Consulting, LLC4008 Lake Drive Avenue NorthMinneapolis, Minnesota 55422-1508Authenticity Consulting, LLC

Content of Guidebook

PART I of the guidebook includes guidelines to help the reader gain clear understanding of the strategic planning process, including how it guides the direction, structure and operations of all facets of nonprofit organizations. Ultimately, from reading this section, the reader realizes the importance of customizing the strategic planning process to suit the nature and needs of the typical nonprofit organization.
PART II includes complete, step-by-step guidelines to customize a strategic planning process that is relevant, realistic and flexible. Guidelines make frequent reference to numerous practical tools and techniques spread throughout the guidebook. The planning process is divided into six overall phases, including:
Preparing a thorough "plan for a plan" to customize your strategic planning process.
Conducting realistic situational analyses, external and internal to the organization.
Establishing consensus-driven strategic direction for the organization, including meaningful mission (and vision and/or values, if preferred), goals and strategies.
Developing realistic and flexible implementation plans, including action plans, performance plans, staffing plans and an operating budget.
Developing and communicating the strategic plan document, including thorough review and approval.
Monitoring implementation and adjusting plans, including specific approaches and tools to track status of implementation, along with clearly making changes to plans as needed.

Focus of Guidebook

When members of nonprofit organizations struggle with their strategic planning process or their plan ends up not being useful at all, it is rarely because their planning process did not include state-of-the-art techniques in facilitation or the latest models in strategic planning. Rather, it is because their process 1) did not completely suit the nature and needs of the nonprofit and 2) did not thoroughly address all of the most critical, "core" aspects of strategic planning.
Guidelines in this guidebook are focused on customizing and implementing an organization- or program-wide, strategic planning process for a nonprofit organization. Guidelines will show you, step-by-step, how to conduct a very complete, simplified (not simplistic!) strategic planning process that is very realistic, flexible and suited to the nature of the typical nonprofit organization. Guidelines are useful to cultures that prefer highly rational approaches to planning or more naturalistic and unfolding (organic) approaches.
One of the best ways to ensure that the strategic planning process is highly effective is to ensure that facilitation of the process is highly effective as well. Therefore, this guidebook also provides complete, step-by-step techniques and tools for facilitating every aspect of nonprofit strategic planning -- one of the few strategic planning books, if any, to include that information for facilitators.
The book is organized so that the reader can use it to conduct a complete strategic planning process, or it can be used as a reference manual to address certain phases of planning when needed.

Leveraging the Power of Peers(SM)

by Carter McNamara, published by Authenticity Consulting, LLC. If you intend your nonprofit business planning to cover the entire organization, then you probably need strategic planning as much as, if not more than, business planning. This book provides step-by-step guidelines to customize and facilitate planners to implement the best strategic planning process to suit the particular nature and needs of their nonprofit. This is one of the few books, if any, that explains how to actually facilitate planning. Includes many online forms that can be downloaded and used by planners.

For-Profit-Specific Business Planning

The following books are recommended because of their highly practical nature and often because they include a wide range of information about this Library topic. To get more information about each book, just hover your cursor over the image of the book. A "bubble" of information will be displayed. You can click on the title of the book in that bubble to get more information, too.

Note to Nonprofits -- to Translate For-Profit Plans to Nonprofit Plans

For-profit and nonprofit business plans are very similar. (Nonprofits have "sales", "markets", "competitors", etc, too.) Therefore, nonprofit personnel would benefit from reading the links in the section "For-Profit Business Planning". When reading about for-profit business plans:1. Substitute "balance sheet" for "statement of financial position"2. Substitute "profit and loss statement" for "statement of financial activities". 3. Substitute "customer" for "client"4. Substitute "investor" for "funder"5. Substitute "product" for "program" or "services"

Basic Introduction (for for-profits and nonprofits)

Business planning is usually conducted when starting a new organization or a new major venture, for example, new product, service or program. Essentially, a business plan is a combination of a marketing plan, strategic plan, operational/management plan and a financial plan. Far more important than the plan document, is the planning process itself.
Business planning usually includes a thorough examination of the idea for a new product/service, if there's really a market for it, who the competitors are, how the idea is uniquely positioned to be competitive and noticeable, how the idea will be produced to a product/service, how much it will cost, how it will be promoted, what overall goals must be accomplished, how the development and ongoing operations will be managed and what resources are needed (including money). As noted above, a business plan is a combination of a marketing plan, financial plan, strategic plan and a operational/management plan. Here are a variety of perspectives.

Preface

Business planning is often conducted when:
Starting a new venture (organization, product or service)
Expanding a current organization, product or service
Buying a current organization, product or service
Working to improve the management of a current organization, product or service
There are a wide variety of formats for a business plan. The particular format and amount of content included in a plan depends on the complexity of the organization, product or service and on the demands of those who will use the business plan to make a decision, eg, an investor, funder, management, Board of Directors, etc.
Overall, the contents of a business plan typically aim to:
Describe the venture (new or current organization, product or service), often including its primary features, advantages and benefits
What the organization wants to do with it (buy it, expand it, etc.)
Justification that the plans are credible (eg, results of research that indicate the need for what the organization wants to do)
Marketing plans, including research results about how the venture will be marketed (eg, who the customers will be, any specific groups (or targets) of customers, why they need the venture (benefits they seek from the venture), how they will use the venture, what they will be willing to pay, how the venture will be advertised and promoted, etc.)
Staffing plans, including what expertise will be needed to build (sometimes included in business plans) and provide the venture on an ongoing basis
Management plans, including how the expertise will be organized, coordinated and led
Financial plans, including costs to build the venture (sometimes included in business plans), costs to operate the venture, expected revenue, budgets for each of the first several years into the future, when the venture might break-even (begin making more money overall than it has cost), etc.
Appendices (there are a wide variety of materials included in appendices, eg, description of the overall organization, its other products and/or services, its current staff, etc.)
Nonprofit readers might notice that a business plan is very similar to a well designed grant proposal. In addition to the above items, a grant proposal might include itemization of any deficits (when expected expenses exceed expected revenues), which indicates the need for funding from the particular funder to which the grant proposal is being submitted. Also, a break-even analysis usually isn't included in a grant proposal.
Quite often, an organization's business planners already know much of what will go into a business plan (this is true for strategic planning, too). However, development of the business plan greatly helps to clarify the organization's plans and ensure that key leaders are all "on the same script". Far more important than the plan document, is the planning process itself.

IntroductionAdvertising and promotions is bringing a service to the attention of potential and current customers. Advertising and promotions are best carried out by implementing an advertising and promotions plan. The goals of the plan should depend very much on the overall goals and strategies of the organization, and the results of the marketing analysis, including the positioning statement.
The plan usually includes what target markets you want to reach, what features and benefits you want to convey to them, how you will convey it to them (this is often called your advertising campaign), who is responsible to carry the various activities in the plan and how much money is budgeted for this effort. Successful advertising depends very much on knowing the preferred methods and styles of communications of the target markets that you want to reach with your ads. A media plan and calendar can be very useful, which specifies what advertising methods are used and when.
For each service, carefully consider: What target markets are you trying to reach with your ads? What would you like them to think and perceive about your products (this should be in terms of benefits to them, not you)? How can you get them to think and perceive that? What communications media do they see or prefer the most? Consider TV, radio, newsletters, classifieds, displays/signs, posters, word of mouth, press releases, direct mail, special events, brochures, neighborhood newsletters, etc.

Leadership Lessons From MLK

ay January 18, 2010
A lot of people can learn a lot from the words and examples of Dr. Martin Luther King, whose memory we celebrate today in the US. Managers would do well to remember two of Dr. King's principles - equality and service. Remember that you are no better than the people who report to you. You just have a different job. And the more you serve them, give them what they need to do their job well, the greater your reward will be.

Knowledge managers

"Knowledge manager" is a role and designation that has gained popularity over the past decade. The role has evolved drastically from that of one involving the creation and maintenance of knowledge repositories to one that involves influencing the culture of an organization toward improved knowledge sharing, reuse, learning, collaboration and innovation. Knowledge management functions are associated with different departments in different organizations. It may be combined with Quality, Sales, HR, Innovation, Operations etc and is likely to be determined by the KM motivation of that particular organization.
Knowledge managers have varied backgrounds ranging from Information Sciences to Business Management. An effective knowledge manager is likely to be someone who has a versatile skills portfolio and is comfortable with the concepts of organizational behaviour/culture, processes, branding & marketing and collaborative technology

Technologies

Early KM technologies included online corporate yellow pages as expertise locators and document management systems. Combined with the early development of collaborative technologies (in particular Lotus Notes), KM technologies expanded in the mid-1990s. Subsequent KM efforts leveraged semantic technologies for search and retrieval and the development of e-learning tools for communities of practice [14] (Capozzi 2007).
More recently, development of social computing tools (such as blogs and wikis) have allowed more unstructured, self-governing or ecosystem approaches to the transfer, capture and creation of knowledge, including the development of new forms of communities, networks, or matrixed organisations. However such tools for the most part are still based on text and code, and thus represent explicit knowledge transfer. These tools face challenges in distilling meaningful re-usable knowledge and ensuring that their content is transmissible through diverse channels [15](Andrus 2005).
Software tools in knowledge management are a collection of technologies and are not necessarily acquired as a single software solution. Furthermore, these knowledge management software tools have the advantage of using the organisation’s existing information technology infrastructure. Organisations and business decision makers spend a great deal of resources and make significant investments in the latest technology, systems and infrastructure to support knowledge management. It is imperative that these investments are validated properly, made wisely and that the most appropriate technologies and software tools are selected or combined to facilitate knowledge management. A set of characteristics that should support decision makers in the selection of software tools for knowledge management are available .[16]
Knowledge management has also become a cornerstone in emerging business strategies such as Service Lifecycle Management (SLM) with companies increasingly turning to software vendors to enhance their efficiency in industries including, but not limited to, the aviation industry

Motivations

A number of claims exist as to the motivations leading organisations to undertake a KM effort .[12] Typical considerations driving a KM effort include:
Making available increased knowledge content in the development and provision of products and services
Achieving shorter new product development cycles
Facilitating and managing innovation and organizational learning
Leveraging the expertise of people across the organization
Increasing network connectivity between internal and external individuals
Managing business environments and allowing employees to obtain relevant insights and ideas appropriate to their work
Solving intractable or wicked problems
Managing intellectual capital and intellectual assets in the workforce (such as the expertise and know-how possessed by key individuals)
Debate exists whether KM is more than a passing fad, though increasing amount of research in this field may hopefully help to answer this question, as well as create consensus on what elements of KM help determine the success or failure of such efforts (Wilson 2002) .[13

Strategies

Knowledge may be accessed at three stages: before, during, or after KM-related activities. Different organisations have tried various knowledge capture incentives, including making content submission mandatory and incorporating rewards into performance measurement plans. Considerable controversy exists over whether incentives work or not in this field and no consensus has emerged.
One strategy to KM involves actively managing knowledge (push strategy). In such an instance, individuals strive to explicitly encode their knowledge into a shared knowledge repository, such as a database, as well as retrieving knowledge they need that other individuals have provided to the repository .[11] This is also commonly known as the Codification approach to KM.
Another strategy to KM involves individuals making knowledge requests of experts associated with a particular subject on an ad hoc basis (pull strategy). In such an instance, expert individual(s) can provide their insights to the particular person or people needing this (Snowden 2002). This is also commonly known as the Personalization approach to KM.
Other knowledge management strategies for companies include:
rewards (as a means of motivating for knowledge sharing)
storytelling (as a means of transferring tacit knowledge)
cross-project learning
after action reviews
knowledge mapping (a map of knowledge repositories within a company accessible by all)
communities of practice
expert directories (to enable knowledge seeker to reach to the experts)
best practice transfer
competence management (systematic evaluation and planning of competences of individual organization members)
proximity & architecture (the physical situation of employees can be either conducive or obstructive to knowledge sharing)
master-apprentice relationship
collaborative technologies (groupware, etc)
knowledge repositories (databases, bookmarking engines, etc)
measuring and reporting intellectual capital (a way of making explicit knowledge for companies)
knowledge brokers (some organizational members take on responsibility for a specific "field" and act as first reference on whom to talk about a specific subject)
social software (wikis, social bookmarking, blogs, etc)

Dimensions

Different frameworks for distinguishing between knowledge exist. One proposed framework for categorising the dimensions of knowledge distinguishes between tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge represents internalised knowledge that an individual may not be consciously aware of, such as how he or she accomplishes particular tasks. At the opposite end of the spectrum, explicit knowledge represents knowledge that the individual holds consciously in mental focus, in a form that can easily be communicated to others.[9] (Alavi & Leidner 2001).
Early research suggested that a successful KM effort needs to convert internalised tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge in order to share it, but the same effort must also permit individuals to internalise and make personally meaningful any codified knowledge retrieved from the KM effort. Subsequent research into KM suggested that a distinction between tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge represented an oversimplification and that the notion of explicit knowledge is self-contradictory. Specifically, for knowledge to be made explicit, it must be translated into information (i.e., symbols outside of our heads) (Serenko & Bontis 2004). Later on, Ikujiro Nonaka proposed a model (SECI for Socialization, Externalization, Combination, Internalization) which considers a spiraling knowledge process interaction between explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge (Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995). In this model, knowledge follows a cycle in which implicit knowledge is 'extracted' to become explicit knowledge, and explicit knowledge is 'reinternalised' into implicit knowledge.
A second proposed framework for categorising the dimensions of knowledge distinguishes between embedded knowledge of a system outside of a human individual (e.g., an information system may have knowledge embedded into its design) and embodied knowledge representing a learned capability of a human body’s nervous and endocrine systems (Sensky 2002).
A third proposed framework for categorising the dimensions of knowledge distinguishes between the exploratory creation of "new knowledge" (i.e., innovation) vs. the transfer or exploitation of "established knowledge" within a group, organisation, or community. Collaborative environments such as communities of practice or the use of social computing tools can be used for both knowledge creation and transfer .[10]

Research

KM emerged as a scientific discipline in the earlier 1990s. It was initially supported solely by practitioners, when Scandia hired Leif Edvinsson of Sweden as the world’s first Chief Knowledge Officer (CKO). Hubert Saint-Onge (formerly of CIBC, Canada), started investigating various sides of KM long before that. The objective of CKOs is to manage and maximize the intangible assets of their organizations. Gradually, CKOs became interested in not only practical but also theoretical aspects of KM, and the new research field was formed. The KM ideas taken up by academics, such as Ikujiro Nonaka (Hitotsubashi University), Hirotaka Takeuchi (Hitotsubashi University), Thomas H. Davenport (Babson College) and Baruch Lev (New York University). In 2001, Thomas Stewart, former editor at FORTUNE Magazine, published a cover story highlighting the importance of intellectual capital of organizations (Serenko et al. 2010). Since its establishment, the KM discipline has been gradually moving towards academic maturity. First, there is a trend towards higher cooperation among academics; particularly, there has been a drop in single-authored publications. Second, the role of practitioners has changed. Their contribution to academic research has been dramatically declining from 30% of overall contributions up to 2002, to only 10% by 2009.

History

KM efforts have a long history, to include on-the-job discussions, formal apprenticeship, discussion forums, corporate libraries, professional training and mentoring programs. More recently, with increased use of computers in the second half of the 20th century, specific adaptations of technologies such as knowledge bases, expert systems, knowledge repositories, group decision support systems, intranets, and computer supported cooperative work have been introduced to further enhance such efforts.[1]
In 1999, the term personal knowledge management was introduced which refers to the management of knowledge at the individual level (Wright 2005).
In terms of the enterprise, early collections of case studies recognized the importance of knowledge management dimensions of strategy, process, and measurement (Morey, Maybury & Thuraisingham 2002). Key lessons learned included: people, and the cultures that influence their behaviors, are the single most critical resource for successful knowledge creation, dissemination, and application; cognitive, social, and organizational learning processes are essential to the success of a knowledge management strategy; and measurement, benchmarking, and incentives are essential to accelerate the learning process and to drive cultural change. In short, knowledge management programs can yield impressive benefits to individuals and organizations if they are purposeful, concrete, and action-oriented.
More recently with the advent of the Web 2.0, the concept of knowledge management has evolved towards a vision more based on people participation and emergence. This line of evolution is termed Enterprise 2.0 (McAfee 2006). However, there is an ongoing debate and discussions (Lakhani & McAfee 2007) as to whether Enterprise 2.0 is just a fad that does not bring anything new or useful or whether it is, indeed, the future of knowledge management (Davenport 2008).

Knowledge management

Knowledge management (KM) comprises a range of strategies and practices used in an organisation to identify, create, represent, distribute, and enable adoption of insights and experiences. Such insights and experiences comprise knowledge, either embodied in individuals or embedded in organisational processes or practice.
An established discipline since 1991 (see Nonaka 1991), KM includes courses taught in the fields of business administration, information systems, management, and library and information sciences (Alavi & Leidner 1999). More recently, other fields have started contributing to KM research; these include information and media, computer science, public health, and public policy.
Many large companies and non-profit organisations have resources dedicated to internal KM efforts, often as a part of their 'business strategy', 'information technology', or 'human resource management' departments (Addicott, McGivern & Ferlie 2006). Several consulting companies also exist that provide strategy and advice regarding KM to these organisations.
KM efforts typically focus on organisational objectives such as improved performance, competitive advantage, innovation, the sharing of lessons learned, integration and continuous improvement of the organisation. KM efforts overlap with organisational learning, and may be distinguished from that by a greater focus on the management of knowledge as a strategic asset and a focus on encouraging the sharing of knowledge. KM efforts can help individuals and groups to share valuable organisational insights, to reduce redundant work, to avoid reinventing the wheel per se, to reduce training time for new employees, to retain intellectual capital as employees turnover in an organisation, and to adapt to changing environments and markets (McAdam & McCreedy 2000) (Thompson & Walsham 2004).a

Top-level management

Require an extensive knowledge of management roles and skills.
They have to be very aware of external factors such as markets.
Their decisions are generally of a long-term nature
Their decisions are made using analytic, directive, conceptual and/or behavioral/participative processes
They are responsible for strategic decisions.
They have to chalk out the plan and see that plan may be effective in the future.
They are executive in nature.

How to implement policies and strategies

All policies and strategies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff.
Managers must understand where and how they can implement their policies and strategies.
A plan of action must be devised for each department.
Policies and strategies must be reviewed regularly.
Contingency plans must be devised in case the environment changes.
Assessments of progress ought to be carried out regularly by top-level managers.
A good environment and team spirit is required within the business.
The missions, objectives, strengths and weaknesses of each department must be analysed to determine their roles in achieving the business's mission.
The forecasting method develops a reliable picture of the business's future environment.
A planning unit must be created to ensure that all plans are consistent and that policies and strategies are aimed at achieving the same mission and objectives.
Contingency plans must be developed, just in case.
All policies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff that is required in the execution of any departmental policy.
Organizational change is strategically achieved through the implementation of the eight-step plan of action established by John P. Kotter: Increase urgency, get the vision right, communicate the buy-in, empower action, create short-term wins, don't let up, and make change stick.

21st century

In the 21st century observers find it increasingly difficult to subdivide management into functional categories in this way. More and more processes simultaneously involve several categories. Instead, one tends to think in terms of the various processes, tasks, and objects subject to management.
Branches of management theory also exist relating to nonprofits and to government: such as public administration, public management, and educational management. Further, management programs related to civil-society organizations have also spawned programs in nonprofit management and social entrepreneurship.
Note that many of the assumptions made by management have come under attack from business ethics viewpoints, critical management studies, and anti-corporate activism.
As one consequence, workplace democracy has become both more common, and more advocated, in some places distributing all management functions among the workers, each of whom takes on a portion of the work. However, these models predate any current political issue, and may occur more naturally than does a command hierarchy. All management to some degree embraces democratic principles in that in the long term workers must give majority support to management; otherwise they leave to find other work, or go on strike. Despite the move toward workplace democracy, command-and-control organization structures remain commonplace and the de facto organization structure. Indeed, the entrenched nature of command-and-control can be seen in the way that recent layoffs have been conducted with management ranks affected far less than employees at the lower levels of organizations. In some cases, management has even rewarded itself with bonuses when lower level employees have been laid off.[6]

20th century

By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis (see scientism for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include Henry R. Towne's Science of management in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor's The Principles of Scientific Management (1911), Frank and Lillian Gilbreth's Applied motion study (1917), and Henry L. Gantt's charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first college management textbook in 1911. In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became first management consultant of the "Japanese-management style". His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese quality assurance.
The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. The Harvard Business School invented the Master of Business Administration degree (MBA) in 1921. People like Henri Fayol (1841 - 1925) and Alexander Church described the various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891 - 1973), Walter Scott and J. Mooney applied the principles of psychology to management, while other writers, such as Elton Mayo (1880 - 1949), Mary Parker Follett (1868 - 1933), Chester Barnard (1886 - 1961), Max Weber (1864 - 1920), Rensis Likert (1903 - 1981), and Chris Argyris (1923 - ) approached the phenomenon of management from a sociological perspective.
Peter Drucker (1909 – 2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: Concept of the Corporation (published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred Sloan (chairman of General Motors until 1956) commissioning a study of the organisation. Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein.
H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (1890 - 1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management-studies. In the 1940s, Patrick Blackett combined these statistical theories with microeconomic theory and gave birth to the science of operations research. Operations research, sometimes known as "management science" (but distinct from Taylor's scientific management), attempts to take a scientific approach to solving management problems, particularly in the areas of logistics and operations.
Some of the more recent[update] developments include the Theory of Constraints, management by objectives, reengineering, Six Sigma and various information-technology-driven theories such as agile software development, as well as group management theories such as Cog's Ladder.
As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for popularised systems of management ideas to peddle their wares. In this context many management fads may have had more to do with pop psychology than with scientific theories of management.
Towards the end of the 20th century, business management came to consist of six separate branches, namely:
Human resource management
Operations management or production management
Strategic management
Marketing management
Financial management
Information technology management responsible for management information systems

19th century

Classical economists such as Adam Smith (1723 - 1790) and John Stuart Mill (1806 - 1873) provided a theoretical background to resource-allocation, production, and pricing issues. About the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney (1765 - 1825), James Watt (1736 - 1819), and Matthew Boulton (1728 - 1809) developed elements of technical production such as standardization, quality-control procedures, cost-accounting, interchangeability of parts, and work-planning. Many of these aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi-mass production.
By the late 19th century, marginal economists Alfred Marshall (1842 - 1924), Léon Walras (1834 - 1910), and others introduced a new layer of complexity to the theoretical underpinnings of management. Joseph Wharton offered the first tertiary-level course in management in 1881.

Historical development

Difficulties arise in tracing the history of management. Some see it (by definition) as a late modern (in the sense of late modernity) conceptualization. On those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history, only harbingers (such as stewards). Others, however, detect management-like-thought back to Sumerian traders and to the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt. Slave-owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting/motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises, given their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically. However, innovations such as the spread of Arabic numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494) provided tools for management assessment, planning and control.
Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and recording before the industrial revolution, it made sense for most owners of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with growing size and complexity of organizations, the split between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties or groups of shareholders) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more common.

management

Eustress and Distress
Is stress then a very dangerous word? No. Stress os an essential ingredint for the normal in all business and human organization activity is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources.
Management can also refer to the person or people who perform the act(s) of management.

management

Your body and mind have their capacities

There two fundamental needs of any living being for Survival-

+Substenance- provisin of food, water, air and the like.

+Protection- shelther from theats of external nviroment

these threats could too mugh heat, too much cold, diseases, damege to one's body, insult to one's mind circumstances like failtur or death of a of the their one etc that are threatening situations like to one's mind.

management

A simple defination of stres

Stress is the 'wear and tear', our minds and bodies experience as we attempt to cope with our continually changing 'enviroment. Stres is not somthing that affects us from outside. It is the respose given by the survival instinct in the body.

management

The need for a ProperDiet

Almost everyone can live healthy for a century if just follows a life of plain living and high thinking for many reason however, people live unhealthy lives and die pre3meturely. people poison their digestive tract with meat, alcohol and various chemicals used in junk -food like coloring agents and preservative. they also poison their bodies with licit and illicit drugs, pain relivers, sleeping pills etc .really , it's a wonder that thwe average lifespan is even this much long. the purpose of food is to increase the

management

Effect of positive and negative motions on physical health

The hypothalamus is a gland that regulates such things as sleep patterns, body temperature and the release of hormones, form the pituitary glands. in many aways, the hypothalamsu affcts the health of the entire body. someone is feeling good about themselves ,the hypothalamus regulates the body in a healthy way;

management

Be natural; it is natural for you to love and serve

In our natural state, we genuinely live happily. A fish dosen't struggle to swim, a bird dosen'tstruggle to fly, he flies, a cuckoo dosen't struggle to sing, she sings. Similary if we can understand our true innate nature - to love and to serve and bring that innate quality out in our life, that would make a remarkable diffirence to our life. people who lead selfish lives don't truly experience life as much as on who lives God - centered self- less life for the sake of others, as the great Rajarishis of Nepal like Janaka, lord Rama, Yudhishtir, Ambarish, shibi, Arjun, Parikshit etc lived .

management

Social Needs

Quality relationshpe are buit on principles- especially the principle of trust. And trust grows out of trustworthiness, out of the character to make and keep commitments, to share resources, to be caring and responsible, to belong, to love unconditionally etc. It is easier to get a fix of love than to work on being a loving person.

management

physical Needs

Vibrant health is based on natural principles. it grows over time out of regular exercises, proper nutrition, adequate rest, a healthy mind - set, avoiding subtances that are harmful to the body. but insted of paing price, we' re caught up in the illusion of a[ppearance - fantasy that the right clothes, the right makeup, the quick -fix weigth - loss programs (actually of solving it)will fulfill our physical need.

management

Case stude

Mr. Hurry- Hare. Hurry , a Type b Manager of Hasty Dash Company Limited

Type A Mr. Hurry - Hare in trafic, rushes in his car, cutting lines , honking wheel away, sitting restlessy at yuor steering wheel, throwing tantrums at the poor taxi driver in front of him as he crawls along the road loooking for a customer? At the airport he Fumes like the Kettle at the tea- stall because the plane is lete and he will miss the apointment with the minister. there is nothing he can do about it. Hisn tarntrums at the airport will not fly the plane3 faster, so as to make up for lost time He quarrels with the organizers that he was not given a seat in the first row, considering his status: but that does not help his inner chemistry. Mr Hurry-Hare is never ready to accept the philosophy of life , of not breaking head against insurmountable rocks?

management

Calm cool company

Mr. Hurry can adopt the same phylo0shy: that can not be cured must be endured. One certainly need not be like a vegetable, but it is useless yelling at diffirent peoplie for thinks that dont't happen accoreding to ones demands, expectaions and speed.

It is a problem with today's world that we always have our mind's demands eye one the end result-the -goal rather then one the enjoyment of the action that takes you there. Whene you ask people what they are going to do after they have finished, they never really Know. Usually they say, "Nothing! just to get everything completed." This 'hurry sicxkness' can become a habit limithing enjoyment in our life.

management

Sleeping habits

There are people who spend their leisure in sleeping long hours. This is a sing of mode of ingnorans or ' tamo guna' Mode of ignorance, as per bhagavad gita is' (lazinesss) and 'pramada' (madness). if one sleeps too much ome canot perform mantra naditation with a fresh mind; the mind tends to be drowys. If one sleeps too little, then one feels tired all day and is unable to perform any activity full attention and precision. one who eats more than requred will dream very much while sleeping, and he must consequently sleep more than is requred. should not sleep more than six hours daily.

management

(Different people have different natures)

To expect evryone to behave the same way is to ask for the impossible. not only differert people, even the same person reacts differently onder different situations. Treat each individal and each situation differently. Do not try to bind othrers ntirely to your liking. By such flexibility , you will have much better relationships. I heard a story form a book b Mr. shiv kaira, of how some animals in a foerest desided to start a school. he student inluded a bird, a squrrel, a fish a dog , and a rabbit. a broad was formad and it was decided that flying tress climbing, swimming and burrowing wold be part or curriculum in oder to give broad based education.

management

(Nepali culture and stress)

A Good leader understands that acommuniry is based on sharing and concern each other. He will not allow social and personal disintegration, but will implement policies that engender a sense of community, security and protection.

In God-centered societies as in Nepal, there is a strong family atmosphere even in offices, where people love others like brothers and sisters and feel concern for cne another. They put aside their worrise about personal comfort to sacrifice foe others' welfare and thus one gets a deep sense of satisfaction in a God-centered life that goes beyond the the prideful lordship of possessions.

management

Do Not personalize issues

One who does not respond according to your expectations is not your enemy. if others disagree to your viwpoint, the are not your enemies. loard Rama was such a mature leader that when decision was to be made whether to accept Vibheeshan into their army, he consulted and heard the opinion of all the different monky leaders, before expressing his own.

management

C0mmunicate.

People one straibned terms with colleagues, bosses, spouse and children under constant stress. It is becouse we have expectations from these people. when our feelings are hurt, we close our door and go into a shell. We don't hear others. Ego becomes a stumbling block in opening our heart. the solutions. the solution is to open out and explain your feeling. then you should be patient to listen to the other person. Don't try win the arjument Treditional joint families could easily solve relationship problems becouse of respect for and submisson to elders.

management

Control your Anger

-Anger is one letter short of DANGER. It is one of the reactions by which the survival instinct tries to protect ud from unfavorable situations. During Anger, intellect says goodbye and goes away. Somehow let out your Anger like steam valve, by properly communicating and revealing your heart without blowing up or losing temper. Here krishna chantinger or Mantra maditation helps nervous people to calm their maids;it icreases the tolerance level and helps us behave with emotional matuerity.

management

Break helps.

Turn To Nature Or Music Devolution music therapy claims mind. Many scientific researches have shown that the bhajans( you will get chant of Here krishna diffirent melodies in your local ISKON Temples ) have a smoothing and calming effect on the mind. the 110 decibels of rock music is too loud for the ears leading to hear loss. It is also harmful to the body as it distrurbs the biolosical rhythm. Nepali classical bhajans are ideal for claiming the stress mind. the synthetic homes and synthetic offices have made our life very artificial. Staying with neture even for a few hours in the week and helps one to the get in touch with god's love for

management

Kee yourself busy

An idle man's brain is devil's workshop". The creative faculty in human mind, makes one thinks of our problems aggressivly and all the time worsenig the situation. Do selfless service to god by visiting temples, singing bhajans, offering krishnabn prasadam to people, by assisting sainty people in propagration of message of bhagavad gita. ISKCON temples are not just temples, but like universities that enlighten the people about the science of god abd life. you might find it interesting to visit your nearest center to join such a valuable service to society. thus the evening hours and weekends will be spent without any unnecessary worries. And you will make great advancement in krishna consciosness and can be like Arjuna, an ideal example of a great devotee who also performed his duty perfactly.

Management

(Ten immediate and practical tips for Type A managers)

The Quadrant II activities that are 'Not Urgent but important' are the activities just fit for Type A managers as they always avoid them considering them waste of time.

• Improving cmmunication with people, Empowerment.
• Better preparation, better planning and organizing.
• Taking better care of self, personal development
• Preventive maintanance

All of these are in Quadrant II. They are important. So why aren't people doing them? the are not Urgent. they aren't pressing. they don't act on you have to act on them.

Management

(Ten immediate and practical tips for Type A manager)

The Quadrant II acctivities that are 'Not Urgent but important' are the activities just fit for Type A managers as they always avoid them considering them waste of time.

management

On the other hand,type B Mr.cool-taor, ultimately, is the one who wins the race and not the here. He is not upset and his insides are not all worked